President of the International Olympic Committee Président du Comité international olympique | |
---|---|
Incumbent Thomas Bach since 10 September 2013 | |
International Olympic Committee | |
Style | His Excellency |
Member of | IOC Executive Board |
Residence | Lausanne Palace |
Seat | IOC Headquarters, Lausanne, Switzerland |
Appointer | IOC Session Elected by the IOC Members by secret ballot |
Term length | Eight years Renewable once for four years |
Constituting instrument | Olympic Charter |
Formation | 1894 |
First holder | Demetrius Vikelas |
Website | International Olympic Committee |
The President of the International Olympic Committee is head of the Executive Board that assumes the general overall responsibility for the administration of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the management of its affairs. The IOC Executive Board consists of the President, four Vice-Presidents and ten other IOC members;[1] all of the board members are elected by the IOC Session, using a secret ballot, by a majority vote.
The Olympic Charter is the codification of the fundamental principles, rules and bye-laws adopted by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The full role of the International Olympic Committee is set out in the Olympic Charter. Russia’s Olympic ban has been lifted by the International Olympic Committee after no more doping violations were found at Pyeonghang 2018 Published: 28 Feb 2018 Russia's Olympic membership.
The IOC organizes the modern Olympic Games, held every two years, alternating summer and winter Games (each every four years). The IOC President holds the office for a term of eight years, renewable once for another four years, so would expect to lead the organization of at least two Summer Olympic Games and two Winter Olympic Games. If reelected, the President is expected to lead through three of each season Olympics.
- 1List of IOC presidents
- 1.7Juan Antonio Samaranch (1980–2001)
- 1.8Jacques Rogge (2001–2013)
List of IOC presidents[edit]
The IOC's first idea was that the country who was holding the games would also assume the role of president. However this idea was quickly abandoned.[2]
Demetrius Vikelas (1894–1896)[edit]
The Baron de Coubertin had already attempted to restart the Olympic Games at the congress for the fifth anniversary of the Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques in 1892. While he may have raised the enthusiasm of the public, he did not manage to establish a proper commitment.[3]
He decided to reiterate his efforts at the next congress in 1894, which would openly address the issue of amateur sports, but also with the sub-text of recreating the Olympic Games. Six of the seven points that would be debated pertained to amateurism (definition, disqualification, betting, etc.) and the seventh point concerned the possibility of restoring the Games. Coubertin also sought to give an international dimension to his congress.
De Coubertin gained support from several personalities: the King of the Belgians; the Prince of Wales; the Crown Prince Constantine of Greece; William Penny Brookes, the creator of the Wenlock Olympian Games in Shropshire, England; and Ioannis Phokianos,[4] a professor of mathematics and physics and a college principal. Phokianos was also one of the advocates of sport in Greece; he had organized a series of Olympic Games sponsored by Evangelos Zappas in 1875, and in 1888 he had organized an elite and private Games as the founder of the Pan-Hellenic Gymnastic Club.[5] Phokianos could not travel to Paris for financial reasons and because he was finalizing the construction of his new college. Instead, de Coubertin turned to one of the more eminent representatives of the Greek community in Paris—Demetrios Vikelas—whom he invited to take part in the congress.[6]Athens was approved to host the 1896 Olympic Games, being the original home of the Olympics, and Vikelas was duly chosen as the first President of the IOC.
Pierre, Baron de Coubertin (1896–1925)[edit]
Pierre, Baron de Coubertin, took over the IOC presidency when Demetrius Vikelas stepped down after the Olympics in his own country. Despite its initial success, the Olympic Movement faced hard times, as the 1900 Games (in de Coubertin's own Paris) and 1904 Games were both upstaged by World's Fairs—Exposition Universelle in 1900 and Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904—and received little attention.[7]
The 1906 Intercalated Games revived the momentum, and the Olympic Games grew to become the most important sports event. De Coubertin created the modern pentathlon for the 1912 Summer Olympics. He subsequently stepped down from the IOC presidency after the 1924 Summer Olympics, which proved much more successful than the first attempt in Paris in 1900. He was succeeded as IOC President in 1925 by Belgian Henri de Baillet-Latour.
De Coubertin remained Honorary President of the IOC until his death in 1937 in Geneva, Switzerland.
Henri, Comte de Baillet-Latour (1925–1942)[edit]
Henri, Comte de Baillet-Latour was elected IOC President in 1925, after the founder of the modern Olympic Movement, Baron de Coubertin, stepped down from the post to become Honorary President. The Comte led the IOC until his death in 1942, when he was succeeded by his Vice-President Sigfrid Edström.
Sigfrid Edström (1942–1952)[edit]
When IOC president Henri de Baillet-Latour died in 1942, Swedish industrialist Sigfrid Edström took over as the acting president until the end of World War II, when he was formally elected IOC President. He played an important role in reviving the Olympic Movement after the war.
In 1931, Edström was involved in the controversial decision to ban legendary Finnish runner Paavo Nurmi from competing at the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, as the IOC considered Nurmi to be a professional athlete. This had a negative effect on Finland's relationship with Sweden, as Nurmi was a celebrated national hero in his own country.
Edström retired from the IOC presidency in 1952 and was succeeded by Avery Brundage.
Avery Brundage (1952–1972)[edit]
Avery Brundage became vice-president of the IOC in 1945 and was subsequently elected president in 1952, at the 47th IOC Session in Helsinki,[8] succeeding Sigfrid Edström. While he was being considered for this honor, Brundage fathered two sons with a woman to whom he was not married; in order to avoid a political scandal, he requested that his name be kept off the birth certificates.[9][10]
During his tenure as IOC president, Brundage strongly opposed any form of professionalism in the Olympic Games. Gradually, this opinion became less accepted by the sports world and other IOC members, but his opinions led to some embarrassing incidents, such as the exclusion of Austrian skier Karl Schranz from the 1972 Winter Olympics. Likewise, he opposed the restoration of Olympic medals to Native American athlete Jim Thorpe, who had been stripped of the medals when he was found to have played professional baseball before taking part in the 1912 Summer Olympics (where he had beaten Brundage in the pentathlon and decathlon). Despite this, Brundage accepted the 'shamateurism' from Eastern Bloc countries, in which team members were nominally students, soldiers, or civilians working in a non-sports profession, but in reality were paid by their states to train on a full-time basis. Brundage claimed that it was 'their way of life.' Thorpe's amateur status was restored by the Amateur Athletic Union in 1973, following Brundage's retirement. The IOC officially pardoned Thorpe in 1982 and ordered that his medals be presented posthumously to his family.[11] After his death in 1975, it was revealed that Brundage had notified the IOC that Thorpe had played professional baseball years before.
Brundage also opposed anything that he viewed as politicizing sport. At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, U.S. sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlosraised their fists to show support for the Black Power movement during their medal ceremony. Brundage, a white American, expelled both African American men from the Olympic Village and had them suspended from the U.S. Olympic team. However, Brundage made no objections against Nazi salutes during the Berlin Olympics.
He may be best remembered for his decision during the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, West Germany, to continue the Games following the Black SeptemberPalestinian terrorist attack which killed eleven Israeli athletes. While some criticized Brundage's decision—including L.A. Times columnist Jim Murray, who wrote 'Incredibly, they're going on with it. It's almost like having a dance at Dachau')[12]—most did not, and few athletes withdrew from the Games. The Olympic competition was suspended on 5 September for one complete day. The next day, a memorial service of eighty thousand spectators and three thousand athletes was held in the Olympic Stadium. Brundage gave an address in which he stated:
Every civilized person recoils in horror at the barbarous criminal intrusion of terrorists into peaceful Olympic precincts. We mourn our Israeli friends [...] victims of this brutal assault. The Olympic flag and the flags of all the world fly at half mast. Sadly, in this imperfect world, the greater and the more important the Olympic Games become, the more they are open to commercial, political, and now criminal pressure. The Games of the XXth Olympiad have been subject to two savage attacks. We lost the Rhodesian battle against naked political blackmail. I am sure that the public will agree that we cannot allow a handful of terrorists to destroy this nucleus of international cooperation and goodwill we have in the Olympic movement. The Games must go on....
Brundage strongly opposed the exclusion of Rhodesia from the Olympics due to its racial policies. After the attacks in Munich, Brundage drew a comparison between the massacre of the Israeli athletes and the barring of the Rhodesian team, for which he later apologized.[13]
Brundage is also remembered for proposing the elimination of all team sports from the Summer Olympic Games, fearing that the Games would become too expensive for all but the wealthiest nations to host; he also proposed the elimination of the Winter Olympic Games entirely due to its pro-European ideology.[citation needed]
Brundage retired as IOC president after the 1972 Summer Games, having held the post for twenty years, and was succeeded by Lord Killanin.
Lord Killanin (1972–1980)[edit]
Michael Morris, 3rd Baron Killanin, was elected as Honorary President of the Olympic Council of Ireland (OCI) in 1950, and became the Irish delegate at the IOC in 1952. He eventually became senior vice-president of the IOC in 1968, and succeeded Avery Brundage to the presidency on 23 August 1972, being elected at the 73rd IOC Session in Munich, just prior to the 1972 Summer Olympics.[14]
The Olympic Movement experienced a difficult period during his presidency, having to deal with the aftermath of the tragedy at the 1972 Munich Games and the financial failure of the 1976 Montréal Games. Due to limited interest from potential hosts, the cities of Lake Placid, New York and Los Angeles, California were chosen to host the 1980 Winter Games and the 1984 Summer Games respectively, in the absence of any competing cities.
Killanin resigned prior to the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, after the massive political boycott of those Games, but retained his position until the Games were completed.
Juan Antonio Samaranch (1980–2001)[edit]
Juan Antonio Samaranch (who was later created The 1st Marquess of Samaranch) was elected President of the IOC on 16 July at the 83rd IOC Session in Moscow, that was held prior to the 1980 Summer Olympics – between 15 and 18 July 1980.[15] He officially assumed presidency at the end of the Moscow Olympics.
During his term, Samaranch managed to make the Olympic Movement financially healthy, with big television deals and sponsorships. Although the 1984 Summer Olympics were boycotted by the Eastern Bloc countries, the number of nations with a membership of the IOC and participating increased at every Games during his presidency. Samaranch also wanted the best athletes to compete in the Olympics, which led to the gradual acceptance of professional athletes.
One achievement of Samaranch has undoubtedly been the financial rescue of the IOC, which was in financial crisis in the 1970s. The games themselves were such a burden on host cities that it appeared that no host would be found for future Olympiads. Under Samaranch, the IOC revamped its sponsorship arrangements (choosing to go with global sponsors rather than allowing each national federation to take local ones), and new broadcasting deals which brought in much money.
It became a tradition for Samaranch, when giving the President's address at the close of each Summer Olympics, to praise the organizers at each Olympiad for putting on 'the best ever' Games. He withheld this phrase only once, at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta[16] where the organization had come under heavy criticism.[17]
Criticism[edit]
What the IOC does with its new-found millions is, however, the subject of much speculation and criticism, with some criticizing the over-commercialization of what used to be a strictly-amateur competition, while others began accusing the IOC of corruption.
Also during his tenure as IOC president, Samaranch insisted that he be addressed with the title of 'Excellency', a title used for heads of state and government (the title of Excellency is, however, also used to address Grandees of Spain, and he was a Spanish Marquis and Grandee since late 1991). In addition, when he traveled to conduct Olympic business, he would insist on a chauffeured limousine as well as a presidential suite in the finest hotel of whatever city he visited. The IOC put an annual rental (at a cost of US$500,000 per year) at a presidential suite for his stays in Lausanne, Switzerland, where the IOC headquarters are located.[18]
Besides his lavish accommodations, he was increasingly criticized for the judging and doping scandals and rampant corruption that occurred under his watch. A closed-door inquiry later expelled several IOC members for accepting bribes but cleared Samaranch of wrongdoing. Samaranch declared that the IOC's worst crisis was over but a group of former Olympic athletes, led by Mark Tewksbury, continued to push for his removal. There were allegations of vote buying in Salt Lake City, Utah's successful bid for the 2002 Winter Olympics. The scandal exposed runaway corruption within the IOC.
Jacques Rogge (2001–2013)[edit]
Jacques Rogge (later created The 1st Count Rogge) was elected as president of the IOC on 16 July 2001 at the 112th IOC Session in Moscow as the successor to Juan Antonio Samaranch, who had led the IOC since 1980.
Under his leadership, the IOC aimed to create more possibilities for developing countries to bid for and host the Olympic Games.[citation needed] Rogge believes that this vision can be achieved in the not too distant future through government backing and new IOC policies that constrain the size, complexity and cost of hosting the Olympic Games.[citation needed]
At the 2002 Salt Lake City Olympics, Rogge became the first[citation needed] IOC President to stay in the Olympic village, to enjoy closer contact with the athletes.[19]
During the opening ceremonies of the 2010 Vancouver Olympics, Rogge delivered a commemoration of Georgian luge athlete Nodar Kumaritashvili, after his fatal accident while practicing in Whistler on 12 February 2010.
Controversies[edit]
For the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, Rogge announced in mid-July 2008 that there would be no Internet censorship by the mainland authorities: 'for the first time, foreign media will be able to report freely and publish their work freely in China.' However, on 30 July 2008, IOC spokesman Kevan Gosper announced that the Internet would indeed be censored for journalists.[20] Gosper, who said he had not heard about this, suggested that high IOC officials (probably including the DutchHein Verbruggen and Swiss IOC Executive Director, Gilbert Felli – and most likely with Rogge's knowledge) had made a secret deal with Chinese officials to allow the censorship, without the knowledge of either the press or most members of the IOC.[21] Rogge later denied that any such meeting had taken place, but did not insist that China adhere to its prior assurances that the Internet would not be censored.[citation needed]
Rogge commented that Usain Bolt's gestures of jubilation and excitement after winning the 100 meters in Beijing are 'not the way we perceive being a champion,' and also said 'that he should show more respect for his competitors.'[22] In response to his comments, Yahoo Sports columnist Dan Wetzel, who covered the Games, described him as '...a classic stiff-collared bureaucrat,' and further contended that '[the IOC] has made billions off athletes such as Bolt for years, yet he has to find someone to pick on.'[23] In an interview with The Irish Times's reporter Ian O'Riordan, Rogge clarified, 'Maybe there was a little bit of a misunderstanding. […] What he does before or after the race I have no problem with. I just thought that his gesticulation during the race was maybe a little disrespectful.'[22]
He rejected calls for a minute of silence to be held to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the 1972 Munich Games attack during the opening ceremonies of the 2012 Summer Olympics, despite the standing request of the families of the 11 Israeli Olympic team members who were held hostage and murdered by the Palestinian group Black September. Calls for such a commemoration marking 40 years since the massacre had also come from Jewish organizations worldwide and politicians from the United States, Israel, Canada, Italy, Australia and Germany. He and the IOC instead opted for a smaller ceremony in London that took place on 6 August, and one at Fürstenfeldbruck Air Base on the 40th anniversary of the attack, 5 September.[24]
Thomas Bach (2013–present)[edit]
Thomas Bach was elected President of the IOC on 10 September 2013, as the successor to Jacques Rogge, at the 125thIOC Session in Buenos Aires.
Bach is the first Olympic medallist to have risen to the position of IOC President – he won a gold medal in men's team foil fencing at the 1976 Summer Olympics. He is the third IOC President to have been an Olympian (Brundage and Rogge were also former Olympic athletes).
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^'Executive Board'. The International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- ^https://stillmed.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/Documents/Document-Set-Teachers-The-Main-Olympic-Topics/Olympism-and-the-Olympic-Movement.pdf
- ^Llewellyn Smith, Olympics in Athens, 677
- ^Llewellyn Smith, Olympics in Athens, 79–81
- ^Llewellyn Smith, Olympics in Athens, 61
- ^Llewellyn Smith, Olympics in Athens, 88
- ^Louis A. Ruprecht (29 June 2002). Was Greek Thought Religious?: On the Use and Abuse of Hellenism, from Rome to Romanticism. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 156.
The 1900 Olympic Games were held in Paris, so as to coincide with the Parisian World's Fair. They were completely upstaged by the fair. So, too, in 1904, when the Games were brought to ... St. Louis, where the World's Fair was to be held. Here, again, the Fair far overshadowed the Games.
|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^Comité International Olympique (September 1959). 'Extract of the minutes of the 47th session – Helsinki 1952 (Palais de la Noblesse)'(PDF). Bulletin du Comité International Olympique (34–35): 22. Retrieved 19 July 2007.
- ^Johnson, William (4 August 1980). 'Avery Brundage: The Man Behind The Mask'. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 11 October 2008.
- ^Tax, Jeremiah (16 January 1984). 'An In-depth Look At Both The Seemly And Seamy Sides Of Avery Brundage'. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 11 October 2008.
- ^'The Olympics in Photos – Jim Thorpe'. Scholastic Corporation. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
- ^Grace, Francie (5 September 2002). 'Munich Massacre Remembered'. CBS News. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
- ^E. J. Khan (16 September 1972). 'Letter from Munich'. The New Yorker. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
Mr. Brundage felt constrained to issue a rare apology of his own, regretting any 'misinterpretation' of his remarks, but not the remarks themselves. 'There was not the slightest intention of linking the Rhodesia question, which was purely a matter of sport, with an act of terrorism universally condemned,' he said. Still, he had alluded to both in one sentence, so it was not surprising that some people had assumed he meant to link them.
- ^Olympic Review, N59, October 1972, p. 355, available online
- ^Olympic Review, N154, August 1980, pp. 410–412, available online
- ^Simon Kuper, 'Beijing strikes gold in the propaganda Olympics', Financial Times, 29 September 2007, p. 10.
- ^'The Coca Cola Olympics', Irish Times, 5 August 1996, p. 15.
- ^'Years of greed and corruption have caught up at last with the international Olympic committee'. CNN. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^'OLYMPICS; Rogge Given Authority To Cancel the Olympics'. The New York Times. 21 September 2001. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
- ^'IOC admits internet censorship deal with China – Radio Netherlands Worldwide – English'. Radionetherlands.nl. 30 July 2008. Retrieved 13 February 2010.
- ^Gosper, Kevan (1 August 2008). 'IOC lies on web access have hurt my reputation'. The Australian.
- ^ ab'One powerful man who does seem to be on top of things'. Irish Times. 23 May 2009. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
- ^'Beijing Olympics' winners and losers'. Yahoo Sports!. 24 August 2008.
- ^Wilson, Stephen (21 July 2012). '1972 Olympics Munich Massacre Anniversary: IOC President Jacques Rogge Rules Out Minute Of Silence'. Huffington Post.
External links[edit]
Coordinates: 46°31′5″N6°35′49″E / 46.51806°N 6.59694°E
Formation | 23 June 1894; 124 years ago |
---|---|
Type | Sports federation |
Headquarters | Lausanne, Switzerland |
95 active members, 44 honorary members, 2 honour members (Senegal and United States), 206 individual National Olympic Committees | |
Official language | French (reference language), English, and the host country's language when necessary |
Jacques Rogge[1] | |
Thomas Bach[1] | |
Yu Zaiqing J.A. Samaranch, Jr. Uğur Erdener Anita DeFrantz[1] | |
Director General | Christophe De Kepper |
Website | www.olympic.org |
Motto:Citius, Altius, Fortius (Latin: Faster, higher, stronger) |
The International Olympic Committee (IOC; French: Comité International OlympiqueCIO) is a non-governmental sports organisation based in Lausanne, Switzerland. Created by Pierre de Coubertin and Demetrios Vikelas in 1894, it is the authority responsible for organising the modern Summer and Winter Olympic Games.[2]
The IOC is the governing body of the National Olympic Committees (NOCs), which are the national constituents of the worldwide Olympic Movement. As of 2016, there are 206 NOCs officially recognised by the IOC. The current president of the IOC is Thomas Bach of Germany, who succeeded Jacques Rogge of Belgium in September 2013.[3]
- 5Organization
- 7IOC members
- 8Olympic marketing
- 10Environmental concerns
- 10.2Venue construction effects on air
- 11Controversies
History[edit]
The IOC was created by Pierre de Coubertin, on 23 June 1894 with Demetrios Vikelas as its first president. As of April 2019, its membership consists of 95 active members, 44 honorary members, an honorary president (Jacques Rogge) and two honour members (Henry Kissinger and Youssoupha Ndiaye).[4] The IOC is the supreme authority of the worldwide modern Olympic Movement.
The IOC organises the modern Olympic Games and Youth Olympic Games (YOG), held in summer and winter, every four years. The first Summer Olympics was held in Athens, Greece, in 1896; the first Winter Olympics was in Chamonix, France, in 1924. The first Summer YOG were in Singapore in 2010 and the first Winter YOG in Innsbruck were in 2012.
Until 1992, both Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same year. After that year, however, the IOC shifted the Winter Olympics to the even years between Summer Games, to help space the planning of the two events from one another, and improve the financial balance of the IOC, which receives a proportionally greater income in Olympic years.
In 2009, the UN General Assembly granted the IOC Permanent Observer status. The decision enables the IOC to be directly involved in the UN Agenda and to attend UN General Assembly meetings where it can take the floor. In 1993, the General Assembly approved a Resolution to further solidify IOC–UN cooperation by reviving the Olympic Truce.[5]
During each proclamation at the Olympics, announcers speak in different languages: French is always spoken first, followed by an English translation, and then the dominant language of the host nation (when this is not English or French).
The IOC received approval in November 2015 to construct a new headquarters in Vidy, Lausanne. The cost of the project was estimated to stand at $156m.[6] The IOC announced on 11 February 2019 that 'Olympic House' would be inaugurated on 23 June 2019 to coincide with its 125th anniversary.[7] The Olympic Museum remains in Ouchy, Lausanne.[8]
Mission and roles[edit]
The stated mission of the IOC is to promote the Olympics throughout the world and to lead the Olympic Movement:[9]
- To encourage and support the organisation, development and coordination of sport and sports competitions;
- To ensure the regular celebration of the Olympic Games;
- To cooperate with the competent public or private organisations and authorities in the endeavour to place sport at the service of humanity and thereby to promote peace;
- To act against any form of discrimination affecting the Olympic Movement;
- To encourage and support the promotion of women in sport at all levels and in all structures with a view to implementing the principle of equality of men and women;
IOC Executive Board[edit]
Designation | Name | Country |
---|---|---|
Honorary President | Jacques Rogge | Belgium |
President | Thomas Bach | Germany |
Vice Presidents | Yu Zaiqing | China |
Juan Antonio Samaranch, Jr. | Spain | |
Uğur Erdener | Turkey | |
Anita DeFrantz | United States | |
Executive Members | Gunilla Lindberg | Sweden |
Nenad Lalovic | Serbia | |
Ivo Ferriani | Italy | |
Kirsty Coventry | Zimbabwe | |
Sergey Bubka | Ukraine | |
Ng Ser Miang | Singapore | |
Willi Kaltschmitt Luján | Guatemala | |
Robin E. Mitchell | Fiji | |
Nicole Hoevertsz | Aruba | |
Denis Oswald | Switzerland | |
Director General | Christophe De Kepper | Belgium |
IOC Commissions[edit]
Commission | Chairperson | Country |
---|---|---|
IOC Athletes' Commission | Kirsty Coventry | Zimbabwe |
IOC Athletes' Entourage Commission | Sergey Bubka | Ukraine |
IOC Audit Committee | Pierre-Olivier Beckers-Vieujant | Belgium |
IOC Communication Commission | Anant Singh | South Africa |
IOC Coordination Commission LA 2028 | Nicole Hoevertsz | Aruba |
IOC Evaluation Commission Milan-Cortina 2026 and Stockholm-Åre 2026 | Octavian Morariu | Romania |
IOC Coordination Commission Paris 2024 | Pierre-Olivier Beckers-Vieujant | Belgium |
IOC Evaluation Commission 2024 Winter Youth Olympics (YOG) | ||
IOC Coordination Commission Dakar 2022 (YOG) | Kirsty Coventry | Zimbabwe |
IOC Coordination Commission Beijing 2022 | Juan Antonio Samaranch, Jr. | Spain |
IOC Coordination Commission Tokyo 2020 | John Coates | Australia |
IOC Coordination Commission Lausanne 2020 (YOG) | Danka Barteková | Slovakia |
IOC Culture and Olympic Heritage Commission | Wu Ching-kuo | Chinese Taipei |
IOC Digital and Technology Commission | Gerardo Werthein | Argentina |
IOC Ethics Commission | Ban Ki-moon | South Korea |
IOC Finance Commission | Ng Ser Miang | Singapore |
IOC Members Election Commission | HRH Anne, Princess Royal | United Kingdom |
IOC Legal Affairs Commission | John Coates | Australia |
IOC Marketing Commission | Jiri Kejval | Czech Republic |
IOC Medical and Scientific Commission | Uğur Erdener | Turkey |
IOC Olympic Channel Commission | Richard Carrion | Puerto Rico |
IOC Olympic Education Commission | Mikaela Cojuangco Jaworski | Philippines |
IOC Olympic Programme Commission | Franco Carraro | Italy |
IOC Olympic Solidarity Commission | Robin Mitchell | Fiji |
IOC Commission for Public Affairs and Social Development Through Sport | Luis Alberto Moreno | Colombia |
IOC Sport and Active Society Commission | Sari Essayah | Finland |
IOC Sustainability and Legacy Commission | HSH Albert II, Prince of Monaco | Monaco |
IOC Women in Sport Commission | Lydia Nsekera | Burundi |
IOC Communications Director | Mark Adams | United Kingdom |
Organization[edit]
IOC Session[edit]
The IOC Session is the general meeting of the members of the IOC, held once a year in which each member has one vote. It is the IOC's supreme organ and its decisions are final.
Extraordinary Sessions may be convened by the President or upon the written request of at least one third of the members.
Among others, the powers of the Session are:
- To adopt or amend the Olympic Charter.
- To elect the members of the IOC, the Honorary President and the honorary members.
- To elect the President, the Vice-Presidents and all other members of the IOC Executive Board.
- To elect the host city of the Olympic Games.
Honours[edit]
In addition to the Olympic medals for competitors, the IOC awards a number of other honours.
- The IOC President's Trophy is the highest sports award given to athletes who have excelled in their sport and had an extraordinary career, creating a lasting impact on their sport[10]
- The Pierre de Coubertin medal is awarded to athletes who demonstrate a special spirit of sportsmanship in Olympic events[11]
- The Olympic Cup is awarded to institutions or associations with a record of merit and integrity in actively developing the Olympic Movement[12]
- The Olympic Order is awarded to individuals for exceptionally distinguished contributions to the Olympic Movement; superseded the Olympic Certificate[13]
- The Olympic Laurel is awarded to individuals for promoting education, culture, development, and peace through sport[14]
- The Olympic town status has been given to some towns that have been particularly important for the Olympic Movement
IOC members[edit]
For most of its existence, the IOC was controlled by members who were selected by other members. Countries that had hosted the Games were allowed two members. When named, they did not become the representatives of their respective countries to the IOC, but rather the opposite, IOC members in their respective countries.
Oath of the International Olympic Committee[edit]
'Granted the honour of becoming a member of the International Olympic Committee and declaring myself aware of my responsibilities in such a capacity, I undertake to serve the Olympic Movement to the very best of my ability; to respect and ensure the respect of all the provisions of the Olympic Charter and the decisions of the International Olympic Committee which I consider as not the subject to appeal on my part; to comply with the code of ethics to keep myself free from any political or commercial influence and from any racial or religious consideration; to fight against all other forms of discrimination; and to promote in all circumstances the interests of the International Olympic Committee and those of the Olympic Movement.'
Cessation of membership[edit]
The membership of IOC members ceases in the following circumstances:[15]
- Resignation: any IOC member may cease their membership at any time by delivering a written resignation to the President.
- Non re-election: any IOC member ceases to be a member without further formality if they are not re-elected.
- Age limit: any IOC member ceases to be a member at the end of the calendar year during which they reach the age of 70 or 80. Any member who was elected before 1999 ceases to be a member at age 80 and any member who was elected after 1999 ceases to be a member at age 70.
- Failure to attend Sessions or take active part in IOC work for two consecutive years.
- Transfer of domicile or of main center of interests to a country other than the country which was theirs at the time of their election.
- Members elected as active athletes cease to be a member upon ceasing to be a member of the IOC Athletes' Commission.
- Presidents and individuals holding an executive or senior leadership position within NOCs, world or continental associations of NOCs, IFs or associations of IFs, or other organisations recognised by the IOC cease to be a member upon ceasing to exercise the function they were exercising at the time of their election.
- Expulsion: an IOC member may be expelled by decision of the Session if such member has betrayed their oath or if the Session considers that such member has neglected or knowingly jeopardised the interests of the IOC or acted in a way which is unworthy of the IOC.
Sports federations recognised by IOC[edit]
There are currently 73international sports federations (IFs) recognised by the IOC.[16] These are:
- The 29 members of Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF)[17]
- The 7 members of Association of International Olympic Winter Sports Federations (AIOWF)[18]
- The 37 members of Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF)[19]
Olympic marketing[edit]
During the first half of the 20th century the IOC ran on a small budget.[20][21] As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest.[22] Brundage believed the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact the IOC's decision-making.[22] Brundage's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organising committees to negotiate their own sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols.[22] When Brundage retired the IOC had US$2 million in assets; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US$45 million.[22] This was primarily due to a shift in ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights.[22] When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980 his desire was to make the IOC financially independent.[21] Samaranch appointed Canadian IOC member Richard Pound to lead the initiative as Chairman of the 'New Sources of Finance Commission'.
In 1982 the IOC drafted ISL Marketing, a Swiss sports marketing company, to develop a global marketing programme for the Olympic Movement. ISL successfully developed the programme but was replaced by Meridian Management, a company partly owned by the IOC in the early 1990s.
In 1989, one of the staff members at ISL Marketing, Michael Payne, moved to the IOC and became the organisation's first marketing director. However ISL and subsequently Meridian, continued in the established role as the IOC's sales and marketing agents until 2002.[23][24] In 2002 the IOC terminated the relationship with Meridian and took its marketing programme in-house under the Direction of Timo Lumme, the IOC's managing director of IOC Television and Marketing Services.[23] During his 17 years with the IOC,[23] in collaboration with ISL Marketing and subsequently Meridian Management, Payne made major contributions to the creation of a multibillion-dollar sponsorship marketing programme for the organisation which, along with improvements in TV marketing and improved financial management, helped to restore the IOC's financial viability.[25][26][27]
Revenue[edit]
The Olympic Movement generates revenue through five major programmes.
- Broadcast partnerships, managed by the IOC.
- Commercial sponsorship, organised through the IOC's worldwide TOP programme.
- Domestic sponsorship, managed by the OCOGs.
- Ticketing.
- Licensing programmes within the host country.
The OCOGs have responsibility for the domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing programmes, under the direction of the IOC.
The Olympic Movement generated a total of more than US$4 billion (€2.5 billion) in revenue during the Olympic quadrennium from 2001 to 2004.
- Revenue distribution
The IOC distributes some of the Olympic marketing revenue to organisations throughout the Olympic Movement to support the staging of the Olympic Games and to promote the worldwide development of sport. The IOC retains approximately 10% of the Olympic marketing revenue for the operational and administrative costs of governing the Olympic Movement.[28]
Organising Committees for the Olympic Games[edit]
The IOC provides TOP programme contributions and Olympic broadcast revenue to the OCOGs to support the staging of the Summer Olympic Games and the Winter Olympic Games:
- TOP programme revenue to OCOGs: the two OCOGs of each Olympic quadrennium generally share approximately 50% of TOP programme revenue and value-in-kind contributions, with approximately 30% provided to the summer OCOG and 20% provided to the winter OCOG.
- Broadcast revenue to OCOGs: the IOC contributes 49% of the Olympic broadcast revenue for each Games to the OCOG. During the 2001–2004 Olympic quadrennium, the Salt Lake 2002 Organizing Committee received US$443 million, €395 million in broadcast revenue from the IOC, and the Athens 2004 Organizing Committee received US$732 million, €690 million.
- Domestic programme revenue to OCOGs: the OCOGs generate substantial revenue from the domestic marketing programmes that they manage within the host country, including domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing.
National Olympic Committees[edit]
The NOCs receive financial support for the training and development of Olympic teams, Olympic athletes and Olympic hopefuls. The IOC distributes TOP programme revenue to each of the NOCs throughout the world. The IOC also contributes Olympic broadcast revenue to Olympic Solidarity, an IOC organisation that provides financial support to NOCs with the greatest need.
The continued success of the TOP programme and Olympic broadcast agreements has enabled the IOC to provide increased support for the NOCs with each Olympic quadrennium. The IOC provided approximately US$318.5 million to NOCs for the 2001–2004 quadrennium.
International Olympic Sports Federations[edit]
The IOC is now the largest single revenue source for the majority of IFs, with its contributions of Olympic broadcast revenue that assist the IFs in the development of their respective sports worldwide. The IOC provides financial support from Olympic broadcast revenue to the 28 IFs of Olympic summer sports and the seven IFs of Olympic winter sports after the completion of the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics, respectively.
The continually increasing value of Olympic broadcast partnership has enabled the IOC to deliver substantially increased financial support to the IFs with each successive Games. The seven winter sports IFs shared US$85.8 million, €75 million in Salt Lake 2002 broadcast revenue. The contribution to the 28 summer sports IFs from Athens 2004 broadcast revenue has not yet been determined, but the contribution is expected to mark a significant increase over the US$190 million, €150 million that the IOC provided to the summer IFs following Sydney 2000.
Other organisations[edit]
The IOC contributes Olympic marketing revenue to the programmes of various recognised international sports organisations, including the International Paralympic Committee (IPC), and the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).
The Olympic Partner programme[edit]
The Olympic Partner (TOP) sponsorship programme includes the following commercial sponsors of the Olympic Games.
- Omega SA (previously The Swatch Group, its parent company)
Environmental concerns[edit]
The IOC recognizes that the Olympic Games demand substantial environmental resources, activities, and construction projects that could be detrimental to a host city's environment.[29] In 1995, IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch stated, 'the International Olympic Committee is resolved to ensure that the environment becomes the third dimension of the organization of the Olympic Games, the first and second being sport and culture.'[30] Acting on this statement, in 1996 the IOC added the 'environment' as a third pillar to its vision for the Olympic Games.[31] The IOC requires cities bidding to host the Olympics to provide a comprehensive strategy to protect the environment in preparation for hosting, and following the conclusion of the Games.[32] This initiative was most notably acted upon in 2000, when the 'Green Olympics' effort was developed by the Beijing Organizing Committee for the Beijing Olympic Games. The Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics effort to host environmentally friendly games resulted in over 160 projects meeting the goal of 'green' games through improved air quality and water quality, implementation of sustainable energy sources, improved waste management, and environmental education. These projects included industrial plant relocation or closure, furnace replacement, introduction of new emission standards, and more strict traffic control.[33] Most of these measures were adopted on a temporary basis, and although real improvements were realized (particularly in air quality), most of these improvements had disappeared one year following the Games. Although these improvements were short lived, IOC's inclusion of environmental policies in evaluating and selecting host cities demonstrates a corporate responsibility that may be built upon in years to come. Detailed frameworks for environmental sustainability have been released for the 2018 Winter Olympics, and 2020 Summer Olympics in PyeongChang, South Korea, and Tokyo, Japan, respectively.[34][35]
IOC approaches[edit]
The IOC has four major approaches to addressing environmental health concerns during the construction and competitions of the Olympic Games. First, the IOC Sustainability and Legacy Commission focuses on how the IOC can improve the strategies and policies associated with environmental health throughout the process of cities hosting the Olympic Games.[36] Secondly, every candidate city must provide information to the IOC on environmental health issues like air quality and environmental impact assessments. Thirdly, every host city is given the option to declare 'pledges' to address specific or general environmental health concerns of hosting the Olympic Game. Fourthly, the IOC has every host city collaborate with the United Nations to work towards addressing environmental health objectives.[37] Ultimately, the IOC uses these four major approaches in an attempt to minimize the negative environmental health concerns of a host city.
Venue construction effects on air[edit]
Cities hosting the Olympic Games have two primary concerns: traffic congestion and air pollution, both of which can result in compromised air quality during and after Olympic venue construction.[38] Research at the Beijing Olympic Games identified particulate matter – measured in terms of PM10 (the amount of aerodynamic diameter of particle≤10 μm in a given amount of air) – as a top priority that should be taken into consideration.[39][40] The particulate matter in the air, along with other airborne pollutants, cause both serious health problems, such as asthma, and contribute to the deterioration of urban ecosystems. Black Carbon is released into the air from incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fluids contributing to global climate change and human health effects. The black carbon concentrations are highly impacted by the truck traffic due to the traffic congestion during the massive construction. Additionally, secondary pollutants like CO, NOx, SO2, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX) are also released during the venue construction, resulting in harmful effects to the environment.[41]
Methods to measure particulates in the air[edit]
Environmental magnetic methods have been established as a successful way of measuring the degree of pollution in air, water and soil. Environmental magnetism is sensitive to particle size, and has proven effective even at low detection levels. For these reasons, it is becoming more widely used.
Measures taken to improve air quality[edit]
Various air quality measures are undertaken before and after the Olympic Games. Research studies demonstrate that the primary method to reduce concentrations of air pollutants is traffic control, including barring heavy vehicles from the roads. For the Beijing Olympics, vehicles not meeting the Euro 1 emission standards were also banned from the roads, and the odd-even rule was implemented in the Beijing administrative area. Additional air quality improvement measures include replacing coal with natural gas, suspending construction and/or imposing strict dust control on construction sites, closing or relocating the polluting industrial plants, building long subway lines, using cleaner fluid in power plants, and reducing the activity by some of the polluting factories. These were several air quality improvement measures implemented by the Beijing government. There, levels of primary and secondary pollutants were reduced, and good air quality was recorded during the Beijing Olympics on most of the days.
Venue construction effects on soil[edit]
Soil contamination can occur during the process of constructing the Olympic venues. In the case of the 2006 Winter Olympic Games in Torino, Italy, negative environmental impacts were observed, including impacts on soil. Before the Games, researchers studied four areas which the Games would likely affect: a floodplain, a highway, the motorway connecting the city to Lyon, France, and a landfill. They performed an extensive analysis in the types of chemicals found in the soils in these areas both before and after the Games. Their findings revealed an increase in the number of metals in the topsoils post-Games, and indicated that soil was capable, as part of an ecosystem, of negating, or 'buffering,' the effects of many heavy metals. However, their findings also revealed that this was not the case for all metals, and that mercury, lead, and arsenic may have been transferred into the food chain on a massive scale.[42]One of the promises made to Londoners when they won the right to host the 2012 Olympic Games was that the Olympic Park would be a 'blueprint for sustainable living.' However, residents of the allotments of Manor Road were relocated, due to the building of the Olympic stadium, and would later disagree that the Olympics had had any positive effect on their lives. Allotments, originally, were intended to provide low-income residents with a plot of land on which to grow their own food, thus receiving the dual health benefits of a supply of fresh food and outdoor work. Many of these sites were lost as a result of the Olympic venue construction, most notably the Manor Road site. Residents were promised that the allotments would be returned, and they eventually were. However, the soil quality would never be the same. Crops tended by allotment residents were the result of years of careful cultivation, and thus, those years of care and attention were destroyed by a bulldozer. Further, allotment residents were exposed to radioactive waste for five months prior to moving, during the excavation of the site for the Games. Other local residents, construction workers, and onsite archeologists faced similar exposures and risks.[43]In contrast, the Sydney Olympic Games of 2000 provided an opportunity to improve a highly contaminated area known as the Homebush Bay site. A study commissioned by the New South Wales Government Olympic Coordination Authority, which was responsible for the Games' site preparation, looked at soil contamination prior to the Games. The work assessed soils that had been previously impacted by waste and identified areas that could pose a risk to the environment. Soil metal concentrations were found to be high enough to potentially contaminate groundwater. After risk areas were identified, a remediation strategy was developed. Contaminated soil was consolidated into four containment areas within the site, which left the remaining areas available for recreational use. Also, the contained waste materials no longer posed a threat to surrounding aquifers. Sydney's winning Olympic bid provided a catalyst to undertake the 'greenest' single urban remediation ever attempted in Australia.[44]
Venue construction effects on water[edit]
The Olympic Games can affect water quality in the surrounding region in several ways, including water runoff and the transfer of polluting substances from the air to water sources through rainfall. Harmful particulates come from both natural substances (such as plant matter crushed by higher volumes of pedestrian and vehicle traffic) and man-made substances (such as exhaust from vehicles or industry). Contaminants from these two categories lead to elevated amounts of toxins in street dust. Street dust then reaches water sources through runoff, facilitating the transfer of toxins to environments and communities that rely on these water sources.[38] For example, one method of measuring the runoff contamination of water sources involves magnetism. Magnetism measurement systems allow specialists to measure the differences in mineral magnetic parameters in samples of water, air, and vegetation. Unlike traditional methods of measuring pollutants, magnetism is relatively inexpensive, and can identify smaller particle sizes.[45]Another method used to assess the amount and effects of water pollutants is to measure the amount of PM2.5 in rainfall. Measuring PM2.5 (the amount of aerodynamic diameter of particle≤2.5 μm in a given amount of air) is a common metric for assessing air quality. Comparing PM2.5 levels between air and rainfall samples allows scientists to determine the amount of air pollution being transferred to water sources. Pollutants in rainfall quickly and directly affect pollution in groundwater sources.[46] In 2013, researchers in Beijing found a significant relationship between the amount of PM2.5 concentrations in the air and in rainfall. Studies showed that rainfall had a significant 'washing' effect on PM2.5 in the air, transferring a large portion of these pollutants from the air to water sources.[47] In this way, Beijing's notorious air pollution has a direct and significant impact on rainfall, and therefore, on water resources throughout the region.
Controversies[edit]
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Amateurism and professionalism[edit]
Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the IOC, was influenced by the ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public schools.[48] The public schools subscribed to the belief that sport formed an important part of education and there was a prevailing concept of fairness in which practicing or training was considered cheating.[48] As class structure evolved through the 20th century, the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentleman became outdated.[48] The advent of the state-sponsored 'full-time amateur athlete' of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis.[49] Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.[50]
Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team's full-time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the IIHF and IOC. At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players[51] at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.[52] The decision was reversed in January 1970 after Brundage said that ice hockey's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made.[51] In response, Canada withdrew from international ice hockey competition and officials stated that they would not return until 'open competition' was instituted.[51][53]
Beginning in the 1970s, amateurism requirements were gradually phased out of the Olympic Charter. After the 1988 Games, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics, subject to the approval of the IFs.[54]
1976 Winter Olympics (Denver, Colorado)[edit]
The cities of Denver, Colorado, United States; Sion, Switzerland; Tampere, Finland; and Vancouver (with the Garibaldi mountains), Canada, made bids for the 1976 Winter Olympics.
The Games were originally awarded to Denver on 12 May 1970, but a rise in costs led to Colorado voters' rejection on 7 November 1972, by a 3 to 2 margin, of a $5 million bond issue to finance the Games with public funds.[55][56]
Denver officially withdrew on 15 November, and the IOC then offered the Games to Whistler, British Columbia, Canada, but they too declined, owing to a change of government following elections. Whistler would go on to be associated with neighbouring Vancouver's successful bid for the 2010 Games.
Salt Lake City, Utah, a 1972 Winter Olympics final candidate who would eventually host the 2002 Winter Olympics, offered itself as a potential host after the withdrawal of Denver. The IOC, still reeling from the Denver rejection, declined the offer from Salt Lake City and, on 5 February 1973, selected Innsbruck to host the 1976 Winter Olympics, the same city that had hosted the Games twelve years earlier.
2002 bid[edit]
A scandal broke on 10 December 1998, when Swiss IOC member Marc Hodler, head of the coordination committee overseeing the organisation of the 2002 Games, announced that several members of the IOC had taken gifts. Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, it was felt that the acceptance of the gifts was morally dubious. Soon four independent investigations were underway: by the IOC, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), the SLOC, and the United States Department of Justice.
Before any of the investigations could even get under way, both Welch and Johnson resigned their posts as the head of the SLOC. Many others soon followed. The Department of Justice filed charges against the two: fifteen charges of bribery and fraud.
As a result of the investigation, ten members of the IOC were expelled and another ten were sanctioned.[57] Stricter rules were adopted for future bids, and caps were put into place as to how much IOC members could accept from bid cities. Additionally, new term and age limits were put into place for IOC membership, and fifteen former Olympic athletes were added to the committee.
From sporting and business standpoints, however, Slat Lake 2002 was one of the most successful Winter Olympiads in history; records were set in both the broadcasting and marketing programs. Over 2 billion viewers watched more than 13 billion viewer-hours.[58] The Games were also financially successful raising more money with fewer sponsors than any prior Olympic Games, which left SLOC with a surplus of $40 million. The surplus was used to create the Utah Athletic Foundation, which maintains and operates many of the remaining Olympic venues.[58]
Other controversies: 2006–2013[edit]
In 2006, a report ordered by the Nagano region's governor said the Japanese city provided millions of dollars in an 'illegitimate and excessive level of hospitality' to IOC members, including $4.4 million spent on entertainment alone.[59] Earlier reports put the figure at approximately $14 million. The precise figures are unknown since Nagano, after the IOC asked that the entertainment expenditures not be made public, destroyed the financial records.[60][61]
International groups attempted to pressure the IOC to reject Beijing's bid in protest of the state of human rights in the People's Republic of China. One Chinese dissident who expressed similar sentiments was arrested and sentenced to two years in prison for calling on the IOC to do just that at the same time that IOC inspectors were touring the city.[62]Amnesty International expressed concern in 2006 regarding the Olympic Games to be held in China in 2008, likewise expressing concerns over the human rights situation. The second principle in the Fundamental Principles of Olympism, Olympic Charter states that The goal of Olympism is to place sport at the service of the harmonious development of man, with a view to promoting a peaceful society concerned with the preservation of human dignity.[63] Amnesty International considers the policies and practices of the People's Republic as failing to meet that principle, and urged the IOC to press China to immediately enact human rights reform.[64]
In August 2008, the IOC issued DMCA take down notices on Tibetan Protest videos of the Beijing Olympics hosted on YouTube.[65] YouTube and the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) both pushed back against the IOC, which then withdrew their complaint.
In 2010, the IOC was nominated for the Public Eye Awards. This award seeks to present 'shame-on-you-awards to the nastiest corporate players of the year'.[66]
Before the start of the 2012 Olympic Games, the IOC decided not to hold a minute of silence to honor the 11 Israeli Olympians who were killed 40 years prior in the Munich Massacre. Jacques Rogge, the then-IOC President, said it would be 'inappropriate' to do so. Speaking of the decision, Israeli Olympian Shaul Ladany, who had survived the Munich Massacre, commented: 'I do not understand. I do not understand, and I do not accept it'.[67]
In February 2013, the IOC did not include wrestling as one of its core Olympic sports for the Summer Olympic programme for the 2020 Olympics. This decision was poorly received by the sporting and wrestling community. Wrestling was still part of the programme at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro.[68] This decision was later overturned, and wrestling will be a part of the 2020 Olympic Games in Tokyo.[69]
As planned, the alpine ski run and luge racing area of the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics will be built in the core area of Beijing Songshan National Reserves. A great number of valuable species such as Lonicera oblata and Cypripedium shanxiense S. C. Chen are found here and many of them can not be conserved through ex situ conservation. Many Chinese professionals of biology and environmentalists deemed that if the Olympic venues are developed in such area, the rare species and integrated ecological environment will be catastrophically collapsed. Chinese government intended to remove such area out from the range of the natural reserves and chose some other area with few rare species as the reserves. Besides, the comments regarding the strict compliance with laws and protection of Songshan National Reserves are widely deleted or restricted in China. All these actions have been criticized by some media and the professionals of biology in China.[70]
Russian doping scandal[edit]
Media attention began growing in December 2014 when German broadcaster ARD reported on state-sponsored doping in Russia, comparing it to doping in East Germany. In November 2015, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) published a report and the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) suspended Russia indefinitely from world track and field events. The United Kingdom Anti-Doping agency later assisted WADA with testing in Russia. In June 2016, they reported that they were unable to fully carry out their work and noted intimidation by armed Federal Security Service (FSB) agents.[71]After a Russian former lab director made allegations about the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, WADA commissioned an independent investigation led by Richard McLaren. McLaren's investigation found corroborating evidence, concluding in a report published in July 2016 that the Ministry of Sport and the FSB had operated a 'state-directed failsafe system' using a 'disappearing positive [test] methodology' (DPM) from 'at least late 2011 to August 2015'.[72]
In response to these findings, WADA announced that RUSADA should be regarded as non-compliant with respect to the World Anti-Doping Code and recommended that Russia be banned from competing at the 2016 Summer Olympics.[73] The IOC rejected the recommendation, stating that a separate decision would be made for each athlete by the relevant IF and the IOC, based on the athlete's individual circumstances.[74][75] One day prior to the opening ceremony, 270 athletes were cleared to compete under the Russian flag, while 167 were removed because of doping.[76] In contrast, the entire Kuwaiti team was banned from competing under their own flag (for a non-doping related matter).[77][78]
The IOC's decision on 24 July 2016 was criticised by athletes[79][80][81][82][83] and writers.[84][85][86][87][88] It received support from the European Olympic Committees, which said that Russia was 'a valued member'.[81] Cam Cole of Canada's National Post said that the IOC had 'caved, as it always does, defaulting to whatever compromise it could safely adopt without offending a superpower.'[88] Expressing disappointment, a member of the IOC Athletes' Commission, Hayley Wickenheiser, wrote, 'I ask myself if we were not dealing with Russia would this decision to ban a nation [have] been an easier one? I fear the answer is yes.'[82] Writing for Deutsche Welle in Germany, Olivia Gerstenberger said that Bach had 'flunked' his first serious test, adding, 'With this decision, the credibility of the organization is shattered once more, while that of state-sponsored doping actually receives a minor boost.'[89]Bild (Germany) described Bach as 'Putin's poodle'.[84]Paul Hayward, chief sports writer of The Daily Telegraph (UK), remarked, 'The white flag of capitulation flies over the International Olympic Committee. Russia's deep political reach should have told us this would happen.[85]
Leaders of thirteen national anti-doping organisations wrote that the IOC had 'violated the athletes' fundamental rights to participate in Games that meet the stringent requirements of the World Anti-Doping Code' and '[demonstrated that] it lacks the independence required to keep commercial and political interests from influencing the tough decisions necessary to protect clean sport.'[90] WADA's former chief investigation, Jack Robertson, said 'The anti-doping code is now just suggestions to follow or not' and that 'WADA handed the IOC that excuse [not enough time before the Olympics] by sitting on the allegations for close to a year.'[91] McLaren was dissatisfied with the IOC's handling of his report, saying 'It was about state-sponsored doping and the mis-recording of doping results and they turned the focus into individual athletes and whether they should compete. [...] it was a complete turning upside down of what was in the report and passing over responsibility to all the different international federations.'[92][93]
In contrast to the IOC, the IPC voted unanimously to ban the entire Russian team from the 2016 Summer Paralympics, having found evidence that the DPM was also in operation at the 2014 Winter Paralympics.[94]
On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced that the Russian Olympic Committee had been suspended effective immediately from the 2018 Winter Olympics. Athletes who had no previous drug violations and a consistent history of drug testing were to be allowed to compete under the Olympic Flag as an 'Olympic Athlete from Russia' (OAR).[95] Under the terms of the decree, Russian government officials were barred from the Games, and neither the country's flag nor anthem would be present. The Olympic Flag and Olympic Anthem will be used instead,[96] and on 20 December 2017 the IOC proposed an alternate logo for the uniforms.[97] IOC President Thomas Bach said that 'after following due process [the IOC] has issued proportional sanctions for this systematic manipulation while protecting the clean athletes.'[98]The New York Times' Rebecca Ruiz and Tariq Panja reported the decision was 'without precedent in Olympics history'[99], while Sean Ingle at The Guardian noted the IOC's view that Russian doping was an “unprecedented attack on the integrity of the Olympic Games and sport”[100]. Hugo Lowell at the inewspaper, meanwhile, reported that the IOC nonetheless stopped short of a total ban against Russia from the Games.[101]
On 1 February 2018, the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) found that the IOC provided insufficient evidence for 28 athletes, and overturned their IOC sanctions.[102] For 11 other athletes, the CAS decided that there was sufficient evidence to uphold their Sochi sanctions, but reduced their lifetime bans to only the 2018 Winter Olympics.[103] The IOC said in a statement that 'the result of the CAS decision does not mean that athletes from the group of 28 will be invited to the Games. Not being sanctioned does not automatically confer the privilege of an invitation” and that “this [case] may have a serious impact on the future fight against doping”. The IOC found it important to note that the CAS Secretary General 'insisted that the CAS decision does not mean that these 28 athletes are innocent” and that they would consider an appeal against the court's decision.[104][105] Later that month, the Russian Olympic Committee was reinstated by the IOC, despite numerous failed drug tests by Russian athletes in the 2018 Olympics,[106][107] and the Russian Anti-Doping Agency was re-certified in September, despite the Russian officials not accepting the McLaren Report.[108]
The IOC was harshly criticized for their handling of the Russian doping scandal. After reinstating the Russian Olympic committee following the 2018 Winter Olympics, Jim Walden, attorney for Dr. Grigory Rodchenkov, who masterminded Russia's programme, called the move 'weakness in the face of evil.' [109]
Bid Controversies: Rio 2016 and Tokyo 2020[edit]
On 1 March 2016, Owen Gibson of The Guardian reported that French financial prosecutors investigating corruption in world athletics had expanded their remit to include the bidding and voting processes for the Rio 2016 and Tokyo 2020 Olympics.[110] The story followed an earlier report in January by Gibson, who revealed that Papa Massata Diack, the son of the then-IAAF president Lamine Diack, appeared to arrange for 'parcels' to be delivered to six IOC members in 2008 when Qatar was bidding for the 2016 Olympic Games, though it failed to make it beyond the shortlisting stage. Qatar denied the allegations.[111] Gibson then reported on 11 May 2016 that a €1.3m (£1m) payment from the Tokyo Olympic bid team to an account linked to Papa Diack was made during Japan’s successful race to host the 2020 Games.[112] The following day, French financial prosecutors confirmed they were investigating allegations of “corruption and money laundering” of more than $2m in suspicious payments made by the Tokyo 2020 Olympic bid to a secret bank account linked to Papa Diack.[113] The string of exclusives by The Guardian prompted a response from Tsunekazu Takeda of the Tokyo 2020 bid committee on 17 May 2016, though he denied any allegations of wrongdoing, and refused to reveal details of the transfers.[114] The controversy was reignited on 11 January 2019 after it emerged Takeda had been indicted on corruption charges in France over his role in the bid process.[115]
See also[edit]
- Association of International Olympic Winter Sports Federations (AIOWF)
- Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF)
- Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF)
- International Academy of Sport Science and Technology (AISTS)
- International Committee of Sports for the Deaf (ICSD)
- FICTS (Fédération Internationale Cinéma Télévision Sportifs) (Organisation recognised by the IOC)
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Further reading[edit]
- Chappelet, Jean-Loup; Brenda Kübler-Mabbott (2008). International Olympic Committee and the Olympic system: the governance of world sport. New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-43167-5.
- Lenskyj, Helen Jefferson (2000). Inside the Olympic Industry: Power, Politics and Activism. New York: SUNY.
External links[edit]
Media related to International Olympic Committee at Wikimedia Commons
- Official website